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Project Documents & Tools Page 191
Project Management Information System (PMIS) An information system consisting of the tools and techniques used to gather, integrate, and disseminate the outputs of project management processes. A PMIS provides access to information technology software tools, such as scheduling software tools, work authorization systems, configuration management systems, and information collection and distribution systems, as well as interfaces to other online automated systems such as organizational knowledge repositories. Automated gathering and reporting on key performance indicators (KPIs) can be part of this system.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 191
Project Reporting Project reporting is the act of collecting and distributing project information. Project information is distributed to many groups of stakeholders and should be adapted to provide information at an appropriate level, format, and detail for each type of stakeholder. The format may range from a simple communication to more elaborate custom reports and presentations. Information may be prepared regularly or on an exception basis.
Data Gathering Page 191
Prompt Lists A predetermined list of risk categories that might give rise to individual project risks and that could also act as sources of overall project risk. The prompt list can be used as a framework to aid the project team in idea generation when using risk identification techniques. The risk categories in the lowest level of the Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) can be used as a prompt list for individual project risks.
Data Gathering Page 192
Questionnaires and Surveys Written sets of questions designed to quickly accumulate information from a large number of respondents. Questionnaires and surveys are most appropriate with varied audiences that need a quick turnaround, are geographically dispersed, and where statistical analysis may be applied to the results.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 192
Recognition and Rewards Part of the team development process involves recognizing and rewarding desirable behavior in order to foster motivation and satisfaction. Recognition and rewards may be tangible or intangible. To be effective, recognition and rewards should be based on activities that are under the control of the project team, and they should be culturally appropriate.
Data Analysis Page 192
Regression Analysis An analytical method where a series of input variables are examined in relation to their corresponding output results to develop a mathematical model. The model may then be used to predict the effect of a change in one or more of the input variables on the value of the output variable.
Data Analysis Page 192
Reserve Analysis A technique used to evaluate the amount of risk on the project and the amount of schedule and/or budget reserve needed to maintain acceptable project parameters. Contingency reserves address identified risks ('known-unknowns') and are included in the cost baseline. Management reserves address unidentified risks ('unknown-unknowns') and are not included in the cost baseline but are part of the total project budget.
Schedule & Estimating Page 192
Resource Leveling & Smoothing Resource optimization techniques used to adjust start and finish dates based on resource constraints with the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available supply. Resource leveling adjusts dates based on resource limits and CAN change the critical path. Resource smoothing adjusts activities within available float and DOES NOT change the critical path.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 145
Active listening Active listening involves techniques such as acknowledging, clarifying, confirming, understanding, and addressing barriers that hinder effective communication and comprehension. Active listening is used to reduce misunderstandings and other miscommunications with stakeholders. It is particularly critical when working in global or cross-cultural environments, where team members may interpret messages differently due to diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Data Representation Page 146
Affinity diagram An affinity diagram shows large numbers of ideas classified into groups for review and analysis. Affinity diagrams can also organize potential causes of defects into groups showing the areas that should be focused on the most.
Data Gathering Page 146
After-action reviews After-action reviews are a simple, structured process used to analyze what happened, why it happened, and how it can be done better by the participants and those responsible for the project or activity. Originating from the U.S. Army, AARs are designed to improve team performance by reflecting on actions taken and outcomes achieved. The AARs are typically conducted at the end of a project or after significant milestones to capture lessons learned and inform future activities. The AARs may include the following: •
Schedule & Estimating Page 146
Agile release planning Agile release planning provides a high-level summary timeline of the release schedule (typically 3–6 months) based on the product roadmap and the product vision for the product’s evolution. Agile release planning determines the number of iterations or sprints in the release. This planning empowers the product owner and team to determine the development scope, timelines, and a releasable product, factoring in business goals, dependencies, impediments, and resource availability. Since features represent expected value to the customer, the timeline provides a more easily understood project schedule as it defines which features will be available at the end of each iteration. Figure 5-1 shows the typical relationship among product vision, product roadmap, release planning, and iteration planning. While the figure shows tasks estimated in hours, it is important to note that many agile teams use story points instead. Story points reflect the relative effort or complexity rather than absolute time, based on the understanding that teams are typically better at comparing work items than predicting precise durations. This approach simplifies planning while preserving accuracy, as estimating hours can be more time-consuming and less reliable in dynamic environments.
Data Analysis Page 147
Alternative analysis Alternative analysis is a method used to evaluate identified options in order to select the options or approaches to use when performing the work of the project. In a project context, two examples include (1) determining what solution might best address a project’s business or mission objectives, and (2) determining the best approach for executing and completing project tasks within the defined constraints.
Schedule & Estimating Page 147
Analogous estimating Analogous estimating is a technique for estimating the duration, cost, or required resources for an activity or a project using historical data from a similar activity or project. Analogous estimating uses parameters from a previous, similar project, such as duration, budget, size, weight, and complexity, as the basis for estimating the same parameter or measure for a future project. When estimating durations, this technique relies on the actual duration of previous, similar projects as the basis for estimating the duration of the current project. It is a gross value estimating approach, sometimes adjusted for known differences in project complexity. Analogous duration estimating is frequently used to estimate project duration when there is limited detailed information about the project. Analogous estimating is generally less costly and less time-consuming than other techniques but can also be less accurate. Analogous duration estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project and may be used in conjunction with other estimating methods. Analogous estimating is Product vision drives product roadmap Product roadmap drives release plans Release plan establishes the iterations Iteration plans schedule feature development Prioritized features delivered by user stories (estimated in story points ) Tasks (estimated in hours) created to deliver user stories Release Plan Iteration Plan Feature D (User Story 5) Feature C (User Story 4) Feature B (User Story 3) Feature A (User Story 2) Feature A (User Story 1) 5 Hours 8 Hours 4 Hours 12 Hours Task A Task B Task C Task D Iteration 0 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration n Release 1 Release 2 Release 3 Figure 5-1. Relationship Among Product Vision, Release Planning, and Iteration Planning most reliable when the previous activities are similar in fact and not just appearance, and when the project team members preparing the estimates have the needed expertise.
Data Gathering Page 148
Benchmarking Benchmarking is the comparison of actual or planned products, processes, and practices to those of comparable organizations to identify good practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance. Benchmarked projects may exist within the performing organization or outside of it, or can be within the same application area or other application area. Benchmarking allows analogies to be made for projects in different application areas or industries.
Schedule & Estimating Page 149
Bottom-up estimating Bottom-up estimating is a method of estimating the duration, cost, or required resources by aggregating the estimates of the lower-level components of the work breakdown structure (WBS). When an activity’s duration cannot be estimated with a reasonable degree of confidence, the work within the activity is decomposed into more detail. The detailed durations are estimated. These estimates are then aggregated into a total quantity for each of the activity’s durations. Activities may or may not have dependencies between them that can affect the application and use of resources. If there are dependencies, this pattern of resource usage is reflected and documented in the estimated requirements of the activity.
Data Gathering Page 149
Brainstorming The brainstorming technique is used to identify a list of ideas in a short period of time. Brainstorming is conducted in a group environment and is led by a facilitator. The technique comprises two parts: idea generation and analysis. Brainstorming can be used to gather data and solutions or ideas from stakeholders, subject matter experts, and team members.
Data Representation Page 150
Burndown chart A burndown chart is a graphical representation of the work remaining versus the time left in a timebox.
Data Representation Page 150
Burnup chart A burnup chart is a graphical representation of the work completed toward a milestone. Burnup charts are used mostly within adaptive development approaches to show project progress over time. The chart tracks the amount of work to be completed as a straight line across the top of the graph. The work completed starts at zero and increases as more work is completed.
Data Representation Page 150
Cause-and-effect diagram A cause-and effect diagram is a visual representation that helps trace an effect back to its root cause. A cause-and-effect diagram may also be known as a fishbone or Ishikawa diagram. This type of diagram breaks down the causes of the problem statement identified into discrete branches, helping to identify the main or root cause of the problem. Centralized management and leadership . While leadership activities should be practiced by all project team members, management activities may be centralized or distributed. Centralized management and leadership is a management structure that consists of top-down leadership and instructions for decision implementation for other levels of management. As opposed to implementing distributed management and leadership, a centralized management and leadership structure means that the decision-making and authority are centralized within top management and are conducted by a small number of senior leaders. In an environment where management activities are centralized, accountability (being answerable for an outcome) is usually assigned to one individual such as the project manager or similar role. In these situations, a project charter or other authorizing document can provide approval for the project manager to form a project team to achieve the project outcomes.
Project Documents & Tools Page 151
Change control tools To facilitate configuration and change management, both manual and automated tools can be utilized. Configuration control focuses on specifying both deliverables and processes, while change control is concerned with identifying, documenting, and approving or rejecting changes to project documents, deliverables, or baselines. Tool selection should be based on the needs of project stakeholders, considering organizational and environmental constraints. Configuration management activities supported by these change control tools include identifying configuration items, recording and reporting their status, and performing configuration item verification and audits. These activities can ensure that the product configuration is defined and verified, changes are managed, and accountability is maintained, meeting the functional requirements outlined in the configuration documentation. Change management activities supported by these change control tools include identifying and selecting change items, documenting changes into proper change requests, and deciding on changes by reviewing, approving, rejecting, or deferring them. Additionally, tools help track changes by verifying that they are registered, assessed, approved, and communicated to stakeholders. Tools also manage change requests and the resulting decisions, with additional considerations for communication to assist the change control board (CCB) in their duties and to distribute decisions to the appropriate stakeholders.
Data Gathering Page 151
Checklists A checklist is a list of items, actions, or points to be considered. Checklists are often used as reminders and are developed based on historical information and knowledge accumulated from similar projects and other sources of information. Using checklists is an effective way to capture lessons learned from similar completed projects, listing specific individual project risks that have occurred previously and that may be relevant to the current project. The organization may maintain checklists based on completed projects or use generic checklists from the industry. While a checklist may be quick and simple to use, it is impossible to build an exhaustive one. The project team should also explore items that do not appear on the checklist. Additionally, the checklist should be reviewed from time to time to update new information as well as remove or archive obsolete information. Checklists can also serve as an effective way to ensure that a project or task is ready to start; such a checklist is also called “definition of ready” or “full kit,” and can be particularly useful in minimizing rework.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 152
Coaching and mentoring Coaching provides guidance and helps people (e.g., a project team member or a stakeholder) to find a solution to a specific problem on their own by asking the right questions. Mentoring is serving as a counselor, guide, or mentor by sharing knowledge, skills, or experience with a person who has to develop their own knowledge or skills. Both coaching and mentoring include one-to-one conversations. However, coaching is more related to achieving specific goals, while mentoring is a more long-term, ongoing relationship-building practice.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 152
Colocation Colocation is an organizational placement strategy where the project team members are physically located close to one another in order to improve communication, working relationships, and productivity.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 153
Communication competence Communication competence is a combination of tailored communication skills that considers factors such as clarity of purpose in key messages, effective relationships and information sharing, and leadership behaviors.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 153
Communication methods A communication method is a systematic procedure, technique, or process used to transfer information among project stakeholders. There are several communication methods that are used to share information among project stakeholders. These methods are broadly classified as follows: •
Communication & Interpersonal Page 153
Communication models A communication model is a description, analogy, or schematic used to represent how the communication process will be performed for the project. Communication models can represent the communication process in its most basic linear form (sender and receiver), in a more interactive form that encompasses the additional element of feedback (sender, receiver, and feedback), or in a more complex model that incorporates the human elements of the sender(s) or receiver(s) and attempts to show the complexity of any communication that involves people. •
Data Analysis Page 154
Communication requirements analysis Communication requirements analysis is an analytical technique used to determine the information needs of the project stakeholders through interviews, workshops, the study of lessons learned from previous projects, etc. Analysis of communication requirements determines the information needs of the project stakeholders. These requirements are defined by combining the type and format of information needed with an analysis of the value of that information. Sources of information typically used to identify and define project communication requirements include but are not limited to the following: • Stakeholder information and communication requirements from within the stakeholder register and stakeholder engagement plan; • Number of potential communication channels or paths, including one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many communications; • Organizational charts; • Project organization and stakeholder responsibilities, relationships, and interdependencies; • Development approach; • Disciplines, departments, and specialties involved in the project; • Logistics of how many persons will be involved with the project and at which locations; • Internal information needs (e.g., when communicating within organizations); • External information needs (e.g., when communicating with the media, public, or contractors); and •
Communication & Interpersonal Page 154
Communication skills Communication skills are a collection of skills to provide, receive, and elicit information from various sources. Communication skills can be oral, visual, or electronic. Oral communication skills include interaction, presentation, active listening, and meeting facilitation. Visual communication skills include data visualization and nonverbal communication. Electronic communication skills include electronic tools such as professional writing, crafting emails, texting, chatting,
Communication & Interpersonal Page 155
Communication styles assessment A communication styles assessment is a technique used to assess communication styles and identify the preferred communication method, format, and content for planned communication activities. Often used with unsupportive stakeholders, this assessment may follow a stakeholder engagement assessment to identify gaps in stakeholder engagement that require additional tailored communication activities and artifacts.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 155
Communication technology Communication technology includes specific tools, systems, computer programs, etc., used to transfer information among project stakeholders. The methods used to transfer information among project stakeholders may vary significantly. Common methods used for information exchange and collaboration include conversations, meetings, written documents, databases, social media, and websites.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 156
Conflict management Conflict is inevitable in a project environment. Sources of conflict include scarce resources, scheduling priorities, and personal work styles. Team ground rules, group norms, and solid project management practices, such as communication planning and role definition, can reduce the amount of conflict. Successful conflict management results in greater productivity and positive working relationships. When managed properly, differences of opinion can lead to increased creativity and better decision- making. If the differences become a negative factor, project team members are initially responsible for their resolution. If conflict escalates, the project manager should help facilitate a satisfactory resolution. Conflict should be addressed early and usually in private, using a direct, collaborative approach. If disruptive conflict continues, formal procedures may be used, including disciplinary actions. The success of project managers in managing their project teams often depends on their ability to resolve conflicts. Different project managers may use different conflict resolution methods. Factors that influence conflict resolution methods may include: • Importance and intensity of the conflict, • Time pressure for resolving the conflict, • • Relative power of the people involved in the conflict, Importance of maintaining a good relationship, and • Motivation to resolve conflict on a long-term or short-term basis. There are five general techniques for resolving conflict. Each technique has its place and use: •
Risk Management Page 157
Contingent response strategies There are five strategies that may be considered for dealing with opportunities, as follows: •
Data Analysis Page 158
Continuous improvement Continuous improvement is an ongoing process that focuses on efforts to improve processes, products, systems, or services. It involves identifying, analyzing, and implementing incremental improvements. Continuous improvement can use approaches such as plan-do-check-act (PDCA), Lean, Total Quality Management, Six Sigma, Five Focusing Steps (5FS), and similar methods.
Data Representation Page 158
Control charts Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable performance. Upper and lower specification limits are based on the requirements and reflect the maximum and minimum values allowed. Upper and lower control limits are different from specification limits. The control limits are determined using standard statistical calculations and principles to ultimately establish the natural capability for a stable process. The project manager and appropriate stakeholders may use the statistically calculated control limits to identify the points at which corrective action will be taken to prevent performance that remains outside the control limits. Control charts can be used to monitor various types of output variables. Although used most frequently to track repetitive activities required for producing manufactured lots, control charts may also be used to monitor cost and schedule variances, volume, frequency of scope changes, or other management results to help determine if the project management processes are in control.
Data Analysis Page 159
Cost aggregation Cost aggregation is a cost estimate that is aggregated by work packages in accordance with the work breakdown structure (WBS). The work package cost estimates are then aggregated for the higher component levels of the WBS (such as control accounts) and, ultimately, for the entire project.
Data Analysis Page 159
Cost-benefit analysis Cost-benefit analysis is a financial analysis method used to determine the benefits provided by a project against its costs. The analysis is used to estimate the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives in order to determine the best alternative in terms of benefits provided. A cost-benefit analysis can help the project manager to determine if project activities are cost-effective. A cost-benefit analysis compares the cost of an activity to the expected benefit.
Schedule & Estimating Page 160
Critical chain method A schedule method that allows the project team to place buffers on any project schedule path to account for limited resources and project uncertainties. See also critical chain project management (CCPM) .
Schedule & Estimating Page 161
Critical path method Critical path method is a method used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount of scheduling flexibility (float) on the logical network paths within the schedule model. The CPM identifies the critical path, which is the sequence of activities that determines the shortest possible duration to complete the project. This method involves schedule network analysis by calculating the early start (ES), early finish (EF), late start (LS), and late finish (LF) dates for each activity, without regard to resource limitations, by performing a forward and backward pass through the schedule network. • The forward pass begins at the project start and calculates the earliest possible start and finish dates for each activity. For example: If Activity A has an early start (ES) of Day 1 and a duration of 3 days, its early finish (EF) is Day 3 (calculated as EF = ES + Duration – 1). This means the activity would start on Day 1 and complete by the end of Day 3. • The backward pass begins at the project end and determines the latest allowable start and finish dates without delaying the project. For example: If an activity must finish no later than Day 10 (LF = 10), and it has a duration of 4 days, its late start (LS) would be Day 7 (calculated as LS = LF – Duration + 1). This means the latest it can start without delaying the project is
Communication & Interpersonal Page 162
Critical thinking Critical thinking is the ability to objectively question, analyze, interpret, evaluate, and judge information to make reasonable decisions. Throughout the various project management performance domains, there is a need to recognize bias, identify the root cause of problems, and consider challenging issues such as ambiguity and complexity. Critical thinking helps to accomplish these activities. Critical thinking includes disciplined, rational, logical, and evidence-based thinking. This approach requires an open mind and the ability to analyze objectively. Critical thinking, especially when applied to discovery, can include conceptual imagination, insight, and intuition; it can also include reflective thinking and metacognition (thinking about thinking and being aware of one’s awareness).
Data Analysis Page 163
Data analysis Data analysis is a process that involves data preprocessing, cleaning, transforming, analyzing, interpreting, and visualization in order to discover insights for informed and data-driven project decision-making. Data analysis can be done manually by project team members or other dedicated functions or by including business intelligence tools and software.
Data Gathering Page 163
Data gathering Data gathering is a process of selecting, collecting, measuring, and analyzing data based on the area of interest or variables (e.g., to answer relevant project-related questions or outcomes).
Data Representation Page 164
Data representation Data representation is the way that data is stored, processed, and transmitted. Data representation can include but is not limited to the following: • Pie chart or circle chart for nominal data representation. Nominal data can be categorized (e.g., it can be a mode of transportation such as a car, train, bus, or bicycle). •
Data Analysis Page 164
Decision tree analysis Decision tree analysis is a diagramming and calculation technique for evaluating the implications of a chain of multiple options in the presence of uncertainty. Decision trees are used to support selection of the best of several alternative courses of action. Alternative paths through the project are shown in the decision tree using branches representing different decisions or events, each of which can have associated costs and related individual project risks (including both threats and opportunities). The end points of branches in the decision tree represent the outcome from following that particular path, which can be negative or positive. The decision tree is evaluated by calculating the expected monetary value of each branch, allowing the optimal path to be selected.
Decision Making Page 165
Decision-making Decision-making techniques include but are not limited to the following: •
Data Analysis Page 165
Decomposition Decomposition is a technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into smaller, more manageable parts. The work package is the work defined at the lowest level of the work breakdown structure (WBS) for which cost and duration can be estimated and managed. The level of decomposition is often guided by the degree of control needed to effectively manage the project. The level of detail for work packages varies depending on the size
Schedule & Estimating Page 166
Dependency determination and integration Dependencies may be characterized by the following attributes: mandatory or discretionary and internal or external. Dependency has four attributes, but two can be applicable at the same time in the following ways: mandatory external dependencies, mandatory internal dependencies, discretionary external dependencies, or discretionary internal dependencies. Note: The WBS is illustrative only. It is not intended to represent the full project scope of any specifc project, nor to imply that this is the only way to organize a
Data Gathering Page 167
Design thinking Design thinking is a nonlinear, iterative process that teams use to understand users, challenge assumptions, redefine problems, and create innovative solutions to prototype and test. Design thinking is a human-centered needs analysis process, popularly used for new product development projects. The process encourages collaboration and the exploration of different ideas with a focus on customer experience, and is performed using several iterative activities such as defining the problem, ideating options, prototyping, and testing.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 168
Distributed management and leadership This management structure emphasizes teamwork and empowered individuals. As opposed to centralized management and leadership, a distributed management and leadership structure means that decision-making and authority are decentralized and distributed among various individuals and teams. Sometimes project management activities are shared among a project management team, and project team members are responsible for completing the work. There are also situations where a project team may self-organize to complete a project. Rather than having a designated project manager, someone within the project team may serve as facilitator to enable communication, collaboration, and engagement. This role may shift among project team members.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 169
Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and manage the personal emotions of oneself and other people, as well as the collective emotions of groups of people. A project team can use emotional intelligence to reduce tension and increase cooperation by identifying, assessing, and controlling the sentiments of project team members, anticipating their actions, acknowledging their concerns, and following up on their issues.
Data Gathering Page 170
Expert judgment Expert judgment is judgment provided based upon expertise in an application area, discipline, industry, etc., as appropriate for the activity being performed. Such expertise may be provided by any group or person with specialized education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 170
Facilitation Facilitation is the ability to effectively guide a group event to a successful decision, solution, or conclusion. A facilitator helps ensure the following: • There is effective participation, • Participants achieve a mutual understanding, • All contributions are considered, • Conclusions or results have full buy-in according to the decision process established for the project, and • Actions and agreements that are achieved are appropriately dealt with afterward.
Schedule & Estimating Page 171
Fast tracking A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence are performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration. An example is constructing the foundation of a building before completing all of the architectural drawings. Fast tracking may result in rework and increased risk. Fast tracking only works when activities can be overlapped to shorten the project duration on the critical path. Such overlapping requires increased coordination efforts between the activities concerned, potentially resulting in greater quality risk.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 172
Feedback Feedback is information about reactions to communications, a deliverable, or a situation. Feedback supports interactive communication among the project manager, project team, and all other project stakeholders.
Project Documents & Tools Page 173
Financing Financing entails acquiring funding for projects. It is common for long-term infrastructure, industrial, and public services projects to seek external sources of funds. If a project is funded externally, the funding entity may have certain requirements that must be met.
Data Representation Page 173
Flowchart Flowcharts are visual representations that map out the sequence of steps and branching possibilities within a process. They are also known as process maps and are used to transform one or more inputs into one or more outputs. Flowcharts are instrumental in illustrating the activities, decision points, branching loops, parallel paths, and overall order of processing within a horizontal value chain. This visualization helps in understanding the operational details of procedures and can be particularly useful in project management for outlining processes and identifying potential areas for improvement.
Data Gathering Page 174
Focus groups Focus groups are an elicitation technique that brings together prequalified stakeholders and subject matter experts to learn about their expectations and attitudes about a proposed product, service, or result. A trained moderator guides the group through an interactive discussion designed to be more conversational than a one-on-one interview.
Data Analysis Page 175
Funding limit reconciliation Funding limit reconciliation is the process of reconciling the expenditure of funds with any funding limits on the commitment of funds for the project. A variance between the funding limits and the planned expenditures will sometimes necessitate the rescheduling of work to level out the rate of expenditures. This leveling is accomplished by placing imposed date constraints for work into the project schedule.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 176
Green human resource management Green human resource management is a set of people management policies and practices that focuses on the sustainable use of resources, preserving the natural environment, and improving environmental performance. For example, green human resource management can involve incorporating green practices while considering project team member recruitment and selection, training and development, performance management, and compensation and rewards, as well as reviewing project team members’ involvement with green practices when performing individual and team assessments.
Communication & Interpersonal Page 171
Ground rules Ground rules are expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members. Defined in the team charter, ground rules set the expected behavior for project team members and other stakeholders with regard to stakeholder engagement.
Data Representation Page 177
Hierarchical charts Hierarchical charts are a traditional organizational chart structure that can be used to show positions and relationships in a graphical, top-down format. Other hierarchical charts include the following: •
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Histogram A bar chart that organizes data into bins to show the frequency distribution of a variable, used to identify patterns, central tendency, and variation in process or project data.
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Historical information review Reviewing historical information can assist in developing parametric estimates or analogous estimates. Historical information may include project characteristics (parameters) to develop mathematical models to predict total project costs. Such models may be simple (e.g., residential home construction is based on a certain cost per square foot of space) or complex (e.g., one model of software development costing uses multiple separate adjustment factors, each of which has numerous points within it). Both the cost and accuracy of analogous and parametric models can vary widely. They are most likely to be reliable when: • Historical information used to develop the model is accurate; • Parameters used in the model are readily quantifiable; and • Models are scalable, such that they work for large projects, small projects, and phases of a project.
Project Documents & Tools Page 180
Knowledge management Knowledge management tools and techniques connect people so they can work together to create new knowledge, share tacit knowledge, and integrate the knowledge of diverse team members. The tools and techniques appropriate in a project depend on the nature of the project, especially the degree of innovation involved, project complexity, and the level of diversity (including diversity of disciplines) among team members. Iteration Days Remaining Work 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12 Actual Remaining Work Ideal Remaining Work Forecast Remaining Work Iteration Burndown Chart Figure 5-10. Iteration Burndown Chart
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Leadership Leadership encompasses the knowledge, skills, and behaviors needed to guide, motivate, and direct a team to help an organization achieve its business goals. These skills may include demonstrating essential capabilities such as negotiation, resilience, communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, and interpersonal skills. Projects are becoming increasingly more complicated with more and more businesses executing their strategy through projects. Project management is more than just working with numbers, templates, charts, graphs, and computing systems. A common denominator in all projects is people.
Schedule & Estimating Page 180
Leads and lags A lead is the amount of time whereby a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity. For example, on a project to construct a new office building, the
Schedule & Estimating Page 181
Logical relationship A logical relationship is a dependency between two activities or between an activity and a milestone. The four most common types of logical relationships are finish-to-start, finish-to-finish, start-to-start, and start-to-finish.
Data Analysis Page 182
Make-or-buy analysis Make-or-buy analysis is the decision-making process of gathering and organizing data about product requirements and analyzing them against available alternatives, including the purchase or internal manufacture of the product.
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Market research Market research is a data-gathering technique that includes examination of industry and specific seller capabilities. Procurement teams may leverage information gained at conferences, online reviews, and a variety of sources to identify market capabilities. The team may also refine specific procurement objectives to leverage maturing technologies while balancing risks associated with the breadth of sellers who can provide the desired materials or services. Write Draft SS – 15 Days (Lag) FS – 2 Weeks (Lead) Complete Punch List Landscape Building Lot Edit Draft Figure 5-12.
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Meetings Project meetings can include virtual or face-to-face meetings and can be supported with document collaboration technologies such as email messages and project websites. Examples of meetings include but are not limited to the following: • Decision-making, • Facilitated workshops, • Issue resolution, • Lessons learned and retrospectives, • Project kickoffs, • Sprint planning, and •
Data Gathering Page 185
Mind mapping See mind mapping . • Reverse brainstorming is a brainstorming technique used by teams to create ideas about how to make a problem worse instead of solving it, which may help to identify the root cause of a problem. • Round-robin is a brainstorming technique where everyone within the team takes a turn to generate and develop ideas. • Starbursting is a brainstorming technique with a main goal of creating a list of questions related to an idea or an issue from different angles. The star has six points, each representing a different question: who, what, when, where, why, and how. • SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis. See SWOT analysis . • Five whys analysis is an iterative brainstorming technique that repeatedly asks “why” in order to get beyond symptoms and get to the root cause of the problem.
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Motivation Motivating project team members has two aspects: The first is understanding what motivates project team members to perform, and the second is working with project team members in such a way that they remain committed to the project and its outcomes (for more information, see motivation ). •
Decision Making Page 186
Multicriteria decision analysis A technique that uses a decision matrix to provide a systematic, analytical approach for establishing criteria, such as risk levels, uncertainty, and valuation, to evaluate and rank many ideas.
Schedule & Estimating Page 187
Multipoint estimating Multipoint estimating is a method used to estimate cost or duration by applying an average or weighted average of optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the individual activity estimates. The accuracy of single-point duration estimates may be improved by considering estimation uncertainty and risk. Using multipoint estimates helps define an approximate range for an activity’s duration: •
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Negotiation Negotiation is a discussion aimed at reaching an agreement. Negotiation is used to achieve support or agreement that supports the work of the project or its outcomes and to resolve conflicts within the team or with other stakeholders. Negotiation among team members is used to reach consensus on project needs. Negotiation can build trust and harmony among team members. Procurement negotiation clarifies the structure, rights, and obligations of the parties and other terms of the purchases so that mutual agreement can be reached prior to signing a contract. Final document language reflects all agreements reached. Negotiation concludes with a signed contract document or other formal agreement that can be executed by both buyer and seller. The negotiation should be led by a member of the procurement team who has the authority to sign contracts. The project manager and other members of the project management team may be present during negotiation to provide assistance as needed.
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Networking Networking is the establishment of connections and relationships with other people from the same or other organizations for the purpose of exchanging information and developing contacts. Networks provide project managers and their teams with access to informal organizations to solve problems, influence actions of their stakeholders, and increase stakeholder support for the work and outcomes of the project, thus improving performance.
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Observation and conversation Observation and conversation provide a direct way of viewing individuals in their environment to see how they perform their jobs or tasks and carry out processes, and to discuss how things are done in a less formal setting.
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Organizational theory Organizational theory provides information regarding the way in which people, teams, and organizational units behave. Effective use of common techniques identified in organizational theory can shorten the amount of time, cost, and effort needed to create the Plan Resource Management process outputs and improve planning efficiency. Applicable organizational theories may recommend exercising a flexible leadership style that adapts to the changes in a team’s maturity level throughout the project life cycle. It is important to recognize that the organization’s structure and culture impact the project’s organizational structure.
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Parametric estimating Parametric estimating is an estimating technique in which an algorithm is used to calculate cost or duration based on historical data and project parameters. Parametric estimating uses a statistical relationship between historical data and other variables (e.g., square footage in construction) to calculate an estimate for activity parameters, such as cost, budget, and duration. Durations can be quantitatively determined by multiplying the quantity of work to be performed by the number of labor hours per unit of work. For example, duration on a design project is estimated by the number of drawings multiplied by the number of labor hours per drawing, or on a cable installation, the meters of cable multiplied by the number of labor hours per meter. If the assigned resource is capable of installing 25 meters of cable per hour, the duration required to install 1,000 meters is 40 hours (1,000 meters divided by 25 meters per hour). This technique can produce higher levels of accuracy depending on the sophistication and underlying data built into the model. Parametric schedule estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in conjunction with other estimating methods.
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Performance reviews Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyze actual performance of work in progress on the project against the schedule baseline, such as actual start and finish dates, percent complete, and remaining duration for work in progress.
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Political awareness Political awareness helps project managers to plan communications based on the project environment as well as their organization’s political environment. Political awareness concerns the recognition of formal and informal power relationships and the willingness to operate within these structures. Aspects of political awareness include the following: • Understanding the strategies of the organization, • Knowing who wields power and influence in this arena, and • Developing an ability to communicate with these stakeholders.
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Preassignment When physical or team resources for a project are determined in advance, they are considered preassigned. This situation can occur if the project is the result of specific resources being identified as part of a competitive proposal or if the project is dependent upon the expertise of particular persons. Preassignment might also include the team members who have already been assigned in Initiating or in other processes before the initial resource management plan has been completed.
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Precedence diagramming method Precedence diagramming method is a technique used for constructing a schedule model in which activities are represented by nodes and are graphically linked by one or more logical relationships to show the sequence in which the activities are to be performed. Precedence diagramming method includes four types of dependencies or logical relationships. A predecessor activity is an activity that logically comes before a dependent activity in a schedule. A successor activity is a dependent activity that logically comes after another activity in a schedule. These relationships are as follows and are illustrated in Figure 5-13: •
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Predictive analytics Predictive analytics uses machine learning and current and historical data to discover patterns and to predict and forecast future scenarios, performance, trends, or events. For example, predictive analytics can be used when predicting project risks and suggesting effective mitigation strategies based on historical data.
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Presentations A presentation is the formal delivery of information and/or documentation. Clear and effective presentations of project information to relevant stakeholders can include but are not limited to the following: • Progress reports and information updates to stakeholders; • Background information to support decision-making; • General information about the project and its objectives, for the purposes of raising the profile of the work of the project and the team; and Probability Very High 0.90 High 0.70 Medium 0.50 Low 0.30 Very Low 0.10 Threats Opportunities 0.05 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.72 0.72 0.36 0.18 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.14 0.28 0.56 0.56 0.28 0.14 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.24 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 Very High 0.90 High 0.70 Medium 0.50 Low 0.30 Very Low 0.10 Probability Very Low Low Moderate High Very High Very High High Moderate Low Very Low 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 Negative Impact Positive Impact • Specific information aimed at increasing understanding and support of the work and objectives of the project. Presentations are successful when the content and delivery take the following into account: • Expectations and needs of the audience, and •
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Prioritization Prioritizing stakeholders may be necessary for projects with a large number of stakeholders, where the membership of the stakeholder community is changing frequently, or when the relationships between stakeholders and the project team or within the stakeholder community are complex.
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Probability and impact matrix A probability and impact matrix is a grid for mapping the probability of occurrence of each risk and its impact on project objectives if that risk occurs. Prioritization rules may be specified by the organization in advance of the project and included in organizational process assets, or they may be tailored to the specific project. Opportunities and threats are represented in a common probability and impact matrix using positive definitions of impact for opportunities and negative impact definitions for threats. Descriptive terms (such as very high, high, medium, low, and very low) or numeric values can be used for probability and impact. Where numeric values are used, these can be multiplied to give a probability–impact score for each risk, which allows the relative priority of individual risks to be evaluated within each priority level. An example probability and impact matrix is presented in Figure 5-14, which also shows a possible numeric risk-scoring scheme.
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Problem-solving Problem-solving entails finding solutions for issues or challenges. Problem-solving can include gathering additional information; critical thinking; and creative, quantitative, and/or logical approaches. Effective and systematic problem-solving is a fundamental element in quality Figure 5-14. Example Probability and Impact Matrix With Scoring Scheme
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Process analysis Process analysis identifies opportunities for process improvements. The analysis also examines problems, constraints, and non-value-added activities that occur during a process.
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Process automations Process automation, which can also include robotic process automation (RPA), helps speed up business processes. Process automation can reduce manual project work and costs, enhance project team and customer experiences by configuring computer software, or be a software robot that performs tasks by mimicking a human. Process automation can be used for project team meeting scheduling, sending reminders, or other manual project tasks that take a sufficient number of hours and can be described as a set of rules or instructions.
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Procurement audit A procurement audit is a structured review of the procurement process, which includes the review of contracts and contracting processes for completeness, accuracy, and effectiveness. Rights and obligations related to audits should be described in the procurement contract. Resulting audit observations should be brought to the attention of the buyer’s project manager and the seller’s project manager for adjustments to the project, when necessary. •
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Product analysis Product analysis can be used to define products and services. This analysis includes asking questions about a product or service and forming answers to describe the use, characteristics, and other relevant aspects of what is going to be manufactured or delivered. Each application area has one or more generally accepted methods for translating high-level product or service descriptions into meaningful deliverables. Requirements are captured at a high level and decomposed to the level of detail needed to design the final product. Examples of product analysis techniques include but are not limited to the following: • Product breakdown, • Requirements analysis, • Systems analysis, • Systems engineering, • Value analysis, and •
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Project canvas A project canvas is a visual tool used to outline and plan the key elements of a project (see Figure 5-15). A project canvas provides a structured framework that helps project Purpose What is the intent of this project? Why are we doing this project? Objective Project Approval Requirements What constitutes project success, who decides if the project is successful, and who approves the project? Scope/Requirements Scope/Deliverables Assumptions/Constraints Scope Exclusion Resources What resources do we need in this project? • Physical (offce, building, server) • Financial (money) • Human (time, knowledge) Milestones Stakeholders Who has an interest in the success of the project? In what way are they involved in the project? Users Who will beneft from the outcome of the project? Risks Which risks may occur during the project? How do we treat these risks? Project Phases Team Percentage of who are the participants? Percentage of who is the project manager? Percentage of what other roles are present in the team? Lessons Learned Figure 5-15. Project Canvas Example managers and teams capture, organize, and communicate essential project information in a clear and concise manner. The project canvas typically includes various sections that cover different aspects of the project such as objectives, stakeholders, deliverables, resources, risks, and timelines. The project canvas offers a visual representation of the project, making it easier to understand and communicate the project’s scope and key components. By presenting information visually, the project canvas allows team members and stakeholders to quickly grasp the overall picture and see how different elements of the project interconnect. This visual approach is particularly useful in complex projects where multiple factors should be considered simultaneously. One of the main advantages of a project canvas is that it provides a comprehensive overview of the project. The project canvas includes sections for project objectives, stakeholders, deliverables, resources, risks, and timelines, ensuring that all critical aspects of the project are captured in one place. This holistic view helps project managers to identify potential gaps or issues early on and to plan more effectively. The project canvas also serves as a powerful collaboration tool. By providing a common platform for discussing and aligning on project details, it facilitates communication and collaboration among team members and stakeholders. This collaborative approach helps ensure that everyone involved in the project has a shared understanding of its goals, scope, and key components, which can lead to better decision-making and more successful project outcomes.
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Project management information system A PMIS is an information system consisting of the tools and techniques used to gather, integrate, and disseminate the outputs of project management processes. A PMIS provides access to information technology software tools, such as scheduling software tools, work authorization systems, configuration management systems, and information collection and distribution systems, as well as interfaces to other online automated systems such as organizational knowledge repositories. Automated gathering and reporting on key performance indicators (KPIs) can be part of this system.
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Resource breakdown structure A resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical representation of resources by category and type. The resource breakdown structure is used for planning, managing, and controlling project work. Each descending (lower) level represents an increasingly detailed description of the resource until the information is small enough to be used in conjunction with the WBS to allow the work to be planned, monitored, and controlled. •
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Resource optimization The resource optimization technique is a technique in which activity start and finish dates are adjusted to balance demand for resources with the available supply.
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Resource smoothing A resource optimization technique in which free and total float are used without affecting the critical path. Resource smoothing is a technique that adjusts the activities of a schedule model such that the requirements for resources on the project do not exceed certain predefined resource limits. In resource smoothing, as opposed to resource leveling, the project’s critical path is not changed and the completion date may not be delayed. In other words, activities may only be delayed within their free and total float. Resource smoothing may not be able to optimize all resources.
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Responsibility assignment matrix A responsibility assignment matrix is a grid that shows the project resources assigned to each work package. The matrix is used to illustrate the connections between work packages, or activities, and project team members. On larger projects, a responsibility assignment matrix can be developed at various levels. For example, a high-level matrix can define the responsibilities of a project team, group, or unit within each component of the WBS. A lower-level matrix can be used within the group to designate roles, responsibilities, and levels of authority for specific activities. The matrix format shows all activities associated with one person and all people associated with one activity. This format also ensures that there is only one person accountable for any one task to avoid confusion about who is ultimately in charge or has authority for the work. One example of a responsibility assignment matrix is a RACI (responsible, accountable, consulted, informed) matrix, shown in Figure 5-19. The sample chart shows the work to be done in the left column as activities. The assigned resources can be shown as individuals or groups. The project manager can select other options, such as “lead” and “resource” designations, as appropriate for the project. A RACI matrix is a useful tool to ensure the clear assignment of roles and responsibilities when the team consists of internal and external resources.
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Retrospectives A retrospective is a regularly occurring workshop in which participants explore their work and results in order to improve both the process and product. Retrospectives are a form of a lessons learned meeting and are conducted frequently throughout the project (at minimum, at the end of each iteration). Retrospectives usually cover process-based questions such as what worked well and what did not and what are the project team recommendations for future iterations. The term retrospective is usually used within adaptive development approaches but can refer to any lessons learned session in any approach. This frequent reflection helps ensure that the team can quickly address issues and implement improvements, rather than waiting until the end of the project. The entire project team participates in RACI Matrix Person Activity Ann Ben Carlos Dina Ed Create charter A R I I I Collect requirements I A R C C Submit change request I A R R C Develop test plan A C I I R R = Responsible A = Accountable C = Consulted I = Informed Figure 5-19. Sample RACI Matrix these meetings, fostering a collaborative environment where everyone can contribute their insights and suggestions. The outcomes of retrospectives are actionable, with specific actions identified and owners assigned to implement the improvements. This immediate impact allows for quick adjustments and continuous enhancement of the project process.
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Risk audit A risk audit is a type of audit that may be used to consider the effectiveness of the risk management process. The project manager is responsible for ensuring that risk audits are performed at an appropriate frequency, as defined in the project’s risk management plan. Risk audits may be included during routine project review meetings, may form part of a risk review meeting, or the team may choose to hold separate risk audit meetings. The format for the risk audit and its objectives should be clearly defined before the audit is conducted.
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Risk categorization Risks to the project can be categorized by sources of risk (e.g., using the risk breakdown structure [RBS]); the area of the project affected (e.g., using the work breakdown structure [WBS]); or other useful categories (e.g., project phase, project budget, and roles and responsibilities) to determine the areas of the project most exposed to the effects of uncertainty. Risks can also be categorized by common root causes. Risk categories that may be used for the project are defined in the risk management plan. Grouping risks into categories can lead to the development of more effective risk responses by focusing attention and effort on the areas of highest risk exposure, or by developing generic risk responses to address groups of related risks.
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Risk probability and impact assessment Risk probability assessments consider the likelihood that a specific risk will occur. Risk impact assessments consider the potential effect on one or more project objectives such as schedule, cost, quality, or performance. Impacts will be negative for threats and positive for opportunities. Probability and impact are assessed for each identified individual project risk. Risks can be assessed in interviews or meetings with participants selected for their familiarity with the types of risk recorded in the risk register. Project team members and knowledgeable persons external to the project are included. The level of probability for each risk and its impact on each objective are evaluated during the interview or meeting. Differences in the levels of probability and impact perceived by stakeholders are to be expected, and such differences should be explored. Explanatory detail, including assumptions justifying the levels assigned, are also recorded. Risk probabilities and impacts are assessed using the definitions given in the risk management plan. Risks with low probability and impact may be included within the risk register as part of a watch list for future monitoring.
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Root cause analysis Root cause analysis is an analytical method used to determine the basic underlying reason that causes a variance, defect, or risk. A root cause may underlie more than one variance, defect, or risk. Root cause analysis may also be used as a technique for identifying the root causes of a problem and solving them. When all root causes for a problem are removed, the problem does not recur.
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S-curve A graph that displays cumulative costs, labor hours, or other quantities plotted against time, showing the typical S-shaped growth pattern of project progress.
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Salience model The salience model describes classes of stakeholders based on assessments of their power (level of authority or ability to influence the outcomes of the project), urgency (need for immediate attention, either time-constrained or relating to the stakeholders’ high stakes in the outcome), and legitimacy (their involvement is appropriate). There is an adaptation of the salience model that substitutes proximity (stakeholders’ direct involvement in the project activities, such as their physical proximity to the worksite, or their direct contribution to project deliverables) for legitimacy (applying to the team and measuring their level of involvement with the work of the project). The salience model is useful for large, complex communities of stakeholders or where there are complex networks of relationships within the community. It is also useful in determining the relative importance of the identified stakeholders. •
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Schedule compression Schedule compression is a technique used to shorten the schedule duration without reducing the project scope. Schedule compression techniques are used to meet schedule constraints, imposed dates, or other schedule objectives. A helpful technique is the negative float analysis. The critical path is the one with the least float. Due to violating a constraint or imposed date, the total float can become negative. Schedule compression techniques are compared in Figure 5-20 and include: •
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Schedule network analysis Schedule network analysis is a technique used to identify early and late start dates, as well as early and late finish dates, for the uncompleted portions of project activities. Schedule network analysis is the overarching technique used to generate the project schedule model. The analysis employs several other techniques such as critical path method, resource optimization techniques, and modeling techniques. Additional analysis includes but is not limited to the following: • Assessing the need to aggregate schedule reserves to reduce the probability of a schedule slip when multiple paths converge at a single point in time, or when multiple paths diverge from a single point in time, to reduce the probability of a schedule slip. • Reviewing the network to see if the critical path has high-risk activities or long-lead items that would necessitate use of schedule reserves or the implementation of risk responses to reduce the risk on the critical path. Schedule network analysis is an iterative process that is employed until a viable schedule model is developed.
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Sensitivity analysis Sensitivity analysis helps to determine which individual project risks or other sources of uncertainty have the most potential impact on project outcomes. The analysis correlates variations in project outcomes with variations in elements of the quantitative risk analysis model. One typical display of sensitivity analysis is the tornado diagram, which presents the calculated correlation coefficient for each element of the quantitative risk analysis model that can influence the project outcome. This analysis can include individual project risks, project activities with high degrees of variability, or specific sources of ambiguity. Items are ordered by descending strength of correlation, giving the typical tornado appearance.
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Servant leadership Servant leadership is the practice of leading the team by focusing on understanding and addressing the needs and development of team members in order to enable the highest possible team performance. Servant leadership is performed in service to the project’s business/mission objective(s).
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Simulation Simulation models the combined effects of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty to evaluate their potential impact on achieving project objectives. The most common simulation technique is Monte Carlo analysis, in which risks and other sources of uncertainty are used to calculate possible schedule outcomes for the total project. Simulation involves calculating multiple work package durations with different sets of activity assumptions, constraints, risks, issues,
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Sprint review A sprint review is a collaborative review session where the team demonstrates the work that was completed during the sprint to stakeholders and solicits their feedback. A sprint review or iteration review is held at the end of a sprint or iteration to demonstrate the work that was accomplished during the sprint or iteration.
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Stakeholder analysis Stakeholder analysis results in a list of stakeholders and relevant information such as their positions in the organization, roles on the project, “stakes,” expectations, attitudes (their levels of support for the project), and their interest in information about the project. Stakeholders’ stakes may include but are not limited to a combination of the following: •
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Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix A stakeholder engagement assessment matrix is a matrix that compares current and desired stakeholder engagement levels. One way to classify the engagement level of stakeholders is shown in Figure 5-23. The engagement level of stakeholders can be classified as follows: •
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Stakeholder mapping Stakeholder mapping and representation is a method of categorizing stakeholders using various methods to understand their relative power, interest, influence, and engagement.
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Storytelling Storytelling in project management is a powerful tool for conveying lessons learned, good practices, and project outcomes through narratives. Unlike traditional reports or data presentations, storytelling engages the audience by making the information more relatable and memorable. Stories are particularly effective for transferring tacit knowledge, which is often difficult to articulate through formal documentation. By illustrating real-life scenarios and solutions, storytelling helps team members understand complex concepts and apply them in their work. Additionally, storytelling can shape organizational culture by highlighting values, successes, and learning moments, thereby reinforcing desired behaviors and practices.
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Strategies for overall project risk Risk responses should be planned and implemented not only for individual project risks but also to address overall project risk. The same risk response strategies that are used to deal with individual project risks can also be applied to overall project risk: •
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SWOT analysis SWOT analysis is the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of an organization, project, or option.
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Technical performance analysis Technical performance analysis compares technical accomplishments during project execution to the schedule of technical achievement. The analysis requires the definition of objective, quantifiable measures of technical performance, which can be used to compare actual results against targets. Such technical performance measures may include weight, transaction times, number of delivered defects, storage capacity, etc. Deviation can indicate the potential impact of threats or opportunities.
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Test and inspection planning During the planning phase, the project manager and the project team determine how to test or inspect the product, deliverable, or service to meet the stakeholders’ needs and expectations, as well as how to meet the goal for the product’s performance and reliability. The tests and inspections are industry dependent and can include, for example, alpha and beta tests in software projects, strength tests in construction projects, inspection in manufacturing, and field tests and nondestructive tests in engineering.
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Testing and product evaluations Testing is an organized and constructed investigation conducted to provide objective information about the quality of the product or service under test in accordance with the project requirements.
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Tornado diagram A tornado diagram is a special type of bar chart used in sensitivity analysis that displays the variables ranked by their influence on the overall project outcome, producing a tornado-like shape.
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Trend analysis Trend analysis is an analytical method that uses mathematical models to forecast future outcomes based on historical results.
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Tuckman ladder One of the models used to describe team development, the Tuckman ladder includes five stages of development that teams may go through: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
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Voting Voting is a collective decision-making technique and an assessment process having multiple alternatives with an expected outcome in the form of future actions. These techniques can be used to generate, classify, and prioritize product requirements. Examples of voting techniques include: ◾